Accelerated Reader Student Software Program Review

Accelerated Reader is one of the world’s most popular reading programs. The software program, commonly referred to as AR, is designed to motivate students to read and to assess their overall understanding of the books that they are reading. The program was developed by Renaissance Learning Inc., which has several other programs closely related to the Accelerated Reader program. Although the program is designed for student’s grades 1-12, Accelerated Reader is especially popular in elementary schools across the country. The programs main purpose is to determine whether or not the student has actually read the book. The program is designed to build and encourage students to become lifelong readers and learners. In addition, teachers can use the program to motivate their students by providing rewards that correspond to the number of AR points earned by the student. Accelerated Reader is essentially a three-step program. Students first read a book (fiction or nonfiction), magazine, textbook, etc. Students may read individually, as a whole group, or in small group settings. Students then individually take the quiz that corresponds to what they just read. AR quizzes are assigned a point value based on the overall level of the book. Teachers often set weekly, monthly, or yearly goals for the number of points they require their students to earn. Students who score below 60% on the quiz do not earn any points. Students who score 60% - 99% receive partial points. Students who score 100% receive full points. Teachers then use the data generated by these quizzes to motivate students, monitor progress, and target instruction. Internet-Based Accelerated Reader is Internet-based meaning that it can be accessed easily on any computer that has Internet access. Being Internet based allows Renaissance Learning to automatically update the program and to store key data on their servers. This makes it much easier on a school’s IT team. Individualized One of the best things about Accelerated Reader is that it allows the teacher to dictate how the program is used including the ability to limit students to a reading range that is on their level. This keeps students from reading books that are too easy or too difficult. Accelerated Reader allows students to read on their own levels and to read at their own pace. It does not dictate which book a student reads. There are currently over 145,000 quizzes available to students. In addition, teachers may make their own quizzes for books that currently are not in the system or they may request that a quiz is made for a particular book. Quizzes are added continuously for new books as they come out. Easy to Set Up Students and teachers can be quickly added to the system either through large batch enrollment or individualized addition. Accelerated Reader allows teachers to customize individual reading levels. Teachers can get these reading levels from a STAR Reading Assessment, standardized assessment, or individual teacher assessment. Classes can be quickly set up to allow the teacher to monitor whole class reading progress and to compare individual students within that class. Motivates Students Every quiz in the Accelerated Reader program is worth points. Points are determined by a combination of the difficulty of the book and the length of the book. Teachers often set goals for the number of points each student must earn. The teacher then rewards their students by giving things such as prizes, parties, etc as motivation to meet their goals. Assesses Student Understanding Accelerated Reader is designed to determine whether or not a student has read a particular book and the level at which they understand the book. A student cannot pass the quiz (60% or higher) if they have not read the book. Students who pass the quizzes demonstrate that they not only read the book, but they have a proficient level of understanding of what the book was about. Uses the ATOS Level The ATOS book level is a readability formula used by the Accelerated Reader program to represent the difficulty of a book. Each book in the program is assigned an ATOS number. A book with a level of 7.5 should be read by a student whose reading level is somewhere around the 7th grade and fifth month of the school year. Encourages Using the Zone of Proximal Development Accelerated Reader encourages the use of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The Zone of Proximal Development is defined as the range of difficulty that will challenge a student without causing the student to become frustrated or lose motivation. The ZPD can be determined by the STAR Reading assessment or the teacher’s best professional judgment. Allows Parents to Monitor Progress The program allows parents to do the following: Monitor a student’s progress towards reading goals.Conduct book searches.Review results, view the number of books read, words read, and quizzes passed. Provides Teachers With Tons of Reports Accelerate Reader has about a dozen fully customizable reports. These include diagnostic reports, history reports; quiz usage reports, student point reports, and many more. Provides Schools With Technical Support Accelerated Reader allows you to receive automatic software updates and upgrades. It provides live chat support to answer questions and provide immediate resolution to any issues or problems you have with the program. Accelerated Reader also provides software and data hosting. Cost Accelerated Reader does not publish their overall cost for the program. However, each subscription is sold for a one-time school fee plus an annual subscription cost per student. There are several other factors that will determine the final cost of the programming including the length of the subscription and how many other Renaissance Learning programs your school has. Research To date, there have been 168 research studies that support the overall effectiveness of the Accelerated Reader program. The consensus of these studies is that Accelerated Reader is fully supported by scientifically based research. In addition, these studies concur that the Accelerated Reader program is an effective tool for boosting students’ reading achievement. Overall Assessment Accelerated Reader can be an effective technological tool for motivating and monitoring a student’s individual reading progress. One fact that can’t be ignored is the program’s immense popularity. Observations show that this program benefits many students, but the overuse of this program can also burn many students out. This speaks more to how the teacher is using the program than it does to the overall program itself. The fact that the program allows teachers to quickly and easily assess whether a student has read a book and the level of understanding they have from the book is a valuable tool. Overall, the program is worth four out of five stars. Accelerated Reader can have immense benefits for younger students but can lack in maintaining its overall benefits as students get older.

The Iliad And The Odyssey Essay - 1270 Words

Ancient Greece, as found in the books of the Iliad and the Odyssey, is a place entranced in mystical beings, powerful gods and goddess, and heroic men. The role of women in society is greatly concentrated on their body with little regard to their soul and mind. However, in the Odyssey, it is Penelope’s soul and mind that are vital to the success of her husband’s nostos and the imperishable fame she will receive. Due to her husband’s long absence, Penelope is placed in a predicament in which she must maintain a household and raise a son all on her own. It is Penelope’s loyalty to her husband, and strength and cunningness of her mind that allow her to survive. Without anyone one of these traits found in few woman at the time, Odysseus could have returned to a dismantled home or even worse, death like that of Clytemnestra’s husband. Clytemnestra is a quintessential woman of her time who falls for another man and plots her own husband’s demise. P enelope is a woman unlike many in Greek times such as Clytemnestra, whose faith, strength, and wit similar to Circe and Athena uphold the nostos of Agamemnon and gain her lasting fame. Penelope is contrary to Clytemnestra as she remains steadfast in her fidelity to her husband. Odysseus is gone for twenty years and despite the hopelessness she feels at times, she remains faithful. Moreover, she never submits to the numerous suitors surrounding her and vying for her hand in marriage while her husband enjoys the company of Calypso andShow MoreRelatedThe Iliad And The Odyssey1060 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Hateful to me as the gates of Hades is that man who hides one thing in his heart and speaks another.† (The Iliad pg.405) The quote is relevant to the stories Homer created during the period of the Trojan War. Homer orally performed two of his best works The Iliad and The Odyssey. Homer’s stories are old and probably translated differently than their original telling. Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey still show the basic human emotions and are an inspiration to other authors, poets, and oral presentersRead MoreThe Iliad and the Odyssey1510 Words   |  7 Pages The Iliad and the Odyssey are two classic stories told by Homer. Within these two stories the roles of the gods are very important to the story line and how they affect the characters throughout. In the Iliad, more gods are involved with the characters whereas in the Odyssey there are only two major gods that affect two major characters. The roles of the gods in the Iliad are through two different stances of immortal versus immortal and mortal versus immortal. The roles of the gods in the OdysseyRead MoreThe Iliad And The Odyssey1317 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout The Iliad and The Odyssey, both Achilles and Odysseus go through intense acts of heroism, internal and external hardships, and fluctuations in confidence. During the epic, The Odyssey, the main character, Odysseus, has to endure many hardships which show. He has to show tremendous amounts of heroism and confidence just to keep his crew and himself alive. He has to rival and face many gods that despise him along with many humans. This theme can also be reflected from Homer’s The Iliad, where theRead MoreThe Iliad And The Odyssey1297 Words   |  6 Pages2. The Iliad and the Odyssey were written by a poet or poets known as Homer. They were stories written about heroes in Mycenaeans times. Homer focused on one important event to base the stories after, the Trojan War. The story was about Paris Prince of Troy, taking Helen of Sparta from her husband. A war started to get Helen back to her husband because her husbands honor was hurt. The story told in the Odyssey is one of the king of Ithaca trying to return to his wife and son after being gone forRead MoreThe Iliad And The Odyssey977 Words   |  4 Pagesplot or storyline, or the theme of the myth. Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey ar e two prime examples of this. Within both epics, the gods constantly intervene in the lives and situations of the characters, molding them to the desired outcome. Without the influence of the gods in either of the epics, however, the ending might have been very different. There was a great deal more divine intervention in The Iliad in comparison to The Odyssey, however, as there were more godly characters in that textRead MoreThe Odyssey And The Iliad1060 Words   |  5 PagesHomer was one of the first great authors in Western culture. He was known for creating the two Greek epics The Odyssey and The Iliad, which. The Odyssey tells of the ten-year journey by Odysseus to Ithica from Troy to be reunited with his beloved wife. The Odyssey was written in a with illustrative language. The Iliad was written in a. It depicted the end of the Trojan War and the siege of Troy. This event occurred centuries before Homer was assumed to have been born. Although both epics were writtenRead MoreThe Iliad And The Odyssey1657 Words   |  7 Pagesduring the Greek Dark Ages was Homer, who I believe was the most influential writer of his time, and a writer w ho had truly made an impact on the evolution of Greek Culture following the Dark Ages. Two of Homer’s most famous poems were the Iliad and the Odyssey, which were Ancient Greek epic poems which covered a couple of weeks during the Trojan War. Although there were plenty of influential authors inspired by the Trojan war, Homer was by far the most influential; Nevertheless, This paper arguesRead MoreIliad and Odyssey1825 Words   |  8 Pagesand cinema of a certain era. The epic poems, The Iliad and Odyssey, give scholars and historians an idea how the Ancient Greek lived their everyday lives. By reading the two novels, the reader is able to experience the three thousand years old society of Homer. The various similarities between our society and the societies depicted in the Iliad and the Odyssey are surprising profuse. To name a few: the superfluous violence in Iliad and Odyssey, the characterization of Odysseus, the obscureRead MoreThe Iliad And The Odyssey1730 Words à ‚  |  7 Pagesonce said â€Å"In youth and beauty, wisdom is but rare!† a very relatable quote to the story of the Iliad. But who exactly is Homer? For starters, Homer was a poet who lived from 800 B.C.E and died in 701 B.C.E. He was from Greece, and to be specific he had lived somewhere along the coast of Asia Minor according to biography.com. Also, he is most famous for his epic poems which were The Iliad and The Odyssey. Now as for whether he truly existed or not is still quite a mystery. Some scholars â€Å"believe himRead MoreThe Iliad And The Odyssey1498 Words   |  6 PagesAn Influential Poem The Iliad is a poem that provides important stories with insight into early human society. It was an ancient story written centuries ago about two civilizations that battled against each other. â€Å"The Iliad tells the story of the clash of two great civilizations, and the effects of war on both the winners and losers† (Homer 222). In addition to its influence on Greek poetry, the Iliad is a great Homeric epic that has long helped shape critical schools of thought. It is not

Impact of Social Influence Pressure †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Impact of Social Influence Pressure. Answer: Introduction: This case emphasises on the role of an auditor Alex Yeung of auditing firm Burt and Old. The current case is regarding the opinion of the auditor in the audit engagement report for the company Fancy Furniture Manufacturing. Fancy Furniture Manufacturing is a client of Burt Old since the past 12 year. Public listed med-size corporation primarily manufactures fine wooden furniture that consists of chair, table, benches, etc. Eucawood Lumber Supply is the major supplier of Fancy Furniture that supplies the company with best quality eucawood. Burt Old whose largest customer is Fancy Furniture Manufacturing also audit Eucawood Lumber Supply. On the other hand, the largest customer of Fancy Furniture Manufacturing is the Norbert Harvey to whom Fancy Furniture sells majority of its product on wholesale basis. On the other hand, it can be seen that the same audit firm that is Burt Old is also auditing Norbert Harvey who is the largest customer of Fancy Furniture. In other words, the different branches of the same audit firms audit all the three firms i.e. Fancy Furniture Manufacturing, Eucawood Lumber Supply and Norbert Harvey. Over the last 5 years Norbert Harvey is experiencing decent growth in terms of furniture that are manufactured by Fancy Furniture and the company wants to multiply the number of stores into Queensland by the coming year. From the beginning, the audit firm has issued unqualified audit report for Fancy Furniture. However, in the 4th quarter of the year 2017, some significant increase in the production cost for the company have been noticed. Firstly, the company suffered from substantial damage of its custom manufacturing equipment that were not insured and secondly, the company failed to favourably negotiate with its union which resulted in increase of employees superannuation expenditures. This was a substantial increase in expenditure from the companys viewpoint. Thus by considering the above mention two facts it is deemed by the engagement team that Fancy Furniture might not able to continue to carry on its business. The fact that Fancy Furniture might fail to continue as a going concern was discussed with the management of the company. However, despite knowing all the fact the management of Fancy Furniture is not willing to disclose the same in its audit report. Now, as per Accounting Professional Ethical Standard Board (APESB) 110, which describes about the integrity in carrying out audit programme states that section 110 of APES levied a compulsion over every professional accountants that they are required to be honest, loyal and candid in their audit approach (APES, 2017). It further states that no professional accountant should provide clean audit opinion intentionally after having knowledge about the fact that the financial statement of the company or firm contains the following: Deceptive statement or material misstatement; Information that are provided irresponsibly or carelessly. The section 120 of APES states that auditor or the accounting professional should maintain objectivity. The section 130 and 150 of the APES requires the professional should perform task with the professional competence and due care (Clayton Staden, 2015). Thus as it is found that in the 4th quarter Fancy Furniture has suffered from increase in production cost. As a result of which the company might wind up or be dissolved. It is important that this information must be specified in the audit report so that the investors, shareholders, supplier and the customer of the company gets to know about the current situation of the company and thus they are not misguided by any means (Zorio et al., 2013). Therefore based on the code of ethics as an auditor, it the duty of Alex Yeung to provide true and fair opinion based on proper facts and information. The auditor should not follow or safeguard the interest of the management of the company. The section 110 of APES imposes an obligation to eve ry accountant to maintain integrity and transparency in the audit report and it must be followed in case of Fancy Furniture Manufacturing as well. Reference (2017). Retrieved 30 September 2017, from https://www.apesb.org.au/uploads/standards/apesb_standards/standardc1.pdf Clayton, B. M., Staden, C. J. (2015). The Impact of Social Influence Pressure on the Ethical Decision Making of Professional Accountants: Australian and New Zealand Evidence.Australian Accounting Review,25(4), 372-388.

Self-Reflection for Business and Organizations - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theSelf-Reflection for Business Model, Cost and Organizations. Answer: First of all I would like to express deep gratitude for giving me an opportunity to work on a new business model. This helped me gain insight on various issues faced by entrepreneurs by stepping into their shoes. This project also increased by industry knowledge and widened by horizons on the aspect of ecommerce. How do you feel you have performed in this subject? I am certain that the service offered by Deligroce is unique in its own way. Despite the fact that there are various competitors in the ecommerce segment, Deligroce has managed to differentiate itself from competition by giving consumers an option to select the vendor from which they would like to order their products. Also, the local vendors have been given a platform to market their products and target a larger customer segment. I have tried my best to understand and keep in mind detailed intricacies regarding, value proposition, business model, cost and organizations structure of Deligroce. Which has further helped me in enhancing my knowledge on the subject. Are you now more likely or less likely to pursue a career as an entrepreneur? Why? Yes, I am more likely to pursue a career as an entrepreneur because now I feel I have better knowledge about various issues faced by a new business upon its planning. Of course there are many more things that I need to come and various practical experiences to gain. But now I feel I have a better insight on what to look forward to when starting a business venture. What did you discover or learn that surprised you about entrepreneurship? What I loved about this project is the value created by Deligroce. I learnt that any entrepreneur cannot solely focus on their profits but must strive to create value in the industry by consistent innovation and growth. I was able to practically apply most of the theories that I learnt in class like SWOT, PESTLE and competitive advantage. This deepened my industry knowledge which is sure to help me in future. When reflecting on where you are now compared to where you were at the beginning of this trimester, what changes have you observed in yourself? In the beginning, I was only aware about the theory of various strategic tools, today I feel I understand their practical applications. I feel more confident and in touch with the real world scenarios that I might face as an entrepreneur. Also my previous opinion was that it is easy to open a business as long as the owner has deep pockets. But today I understand the immense amount of hard work, research and planning that goes behind starting a business. I have deeper knowledge on the functioning of ecommerce industry. Overall this project has been a great learning experience. Not only did I enhance my knowledge but I really enjoyed working on this project and I will cherish this experience for a long time.

Strategic Spatial Planning Evaluation

Introduction Overview The proposed study is about establishing new spatial plans for urban areas. Establishing new urban territories is important as they affect the living environments of various stakeholders. Often, the planning team, which undertakes the re-structuring of a city, cannot interact with all stakeholders (people and organizations) in order to assess and incorporate their diverse interests in the planning process (Healey, 2003).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Strategic Spatial Planning Evaluation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, to develop plans that best meet the needs of all stakeholders, the project planners must involve and interact with stakeholders throughout the project planning process. The aim is to develop plans that reflect their interests and values, which may influence project performance. In the U.S. and many European countries such as the Netherlands, interactive planni ng is highly embraced in the initial stages of spatial planning (Tewdwr-Jones, 2003). It is believed that more interaction during the strategic planning process yields a high performance product. However, this assumption is not based on substantial empirical evidence as research on this area is scanty. Therefore, the impact of stakeholder interaction on product performance is less understood. The proposed research is an exploratory study that will investigate the relationships between stakeholder involvement during strategic spatial planning and performance of industrial area developments. It will explore the nature of the interactions between the planning team and various stakeholders. The study will be guided by the following research question: How does stakeholder (people and organizations) involvement during industrial areas planning influence the effectiveness of strategic spatial planning process? Statement of the Problem Strategic planning generally entails the identification of future actions in a regional or local urban area. A strategic plan takes into account the current and future conditions, which are based on predictions. Spatial planning structures should be flexible and long-term, and reflective of the changing environment as such structures consume high resources (Sartorio, 2005). Moreover, strategic spatial structures aim at improving the quality of life of the people. Thus, a strategic plan for urban development is essential for regional or local governments. As spatial development is influenced by many factors, it raises the question whether nowadays’ planning decisions are right based on the conditions of future spatial development. Regional and local development areas are increasingly becoming globalized and individuals now have more freedom of action. Moreover, there is little empirical evidence to support effective spatial planning. As a result, the effectiveness and appropriateness of spatial planning seem largely uncertain. One way of achieving effective spatial planning is through stakeholder involvement during the planning process. Objective prognosis of the future can be achieved when various institutional and social players are involved. Moreover, through stakeholder engagement, various scenarios can be analyzed, which could help make the future more certain.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Purpose The purpose of this project is to assess the impact of stakeholder involvement during spatial planning on product performance. This will form a sound basis for strategic spatial development in urban areas. To achieve this purpose, the study will examine different scenarios of stakeholder interaction and assess the degree to which the objectives of the projects were achieved. Strategic spatial planning is one way of improving urban planning and organization, and protecting existing ecosystems. How ever, there are claims of insufficient empirical evidence to support spatial planning objectives. It is anticipated that this project will provide empirical data that will inform stakeholders and policy makers on urban planning. Research Questions The main research question for this study is: Does stakeholder (people and organizations) involvement during industrial areas planning influence product performance? To answer this question, five minor research questions, which are related to the main research question, will be used. The supporting research questions include: What constitutes interactive planning in the urban planning process? What are the elements of an effective spatial planning process? How is the effectiveness and appropriateness of spatial planning measured? Does stakeholder interaction during spatial planning process influence product performance? Does an in-depth analysis of scenarios enhance the effectiveness of spatial planning? Based on the answers to these que stions, it will be possible to identify the factors that contribute to the effective spatial planning. It will also be possible to determine whether stakeholder involvement in project planning leads to improved performance. Significance of the Study The proposed research will investigate the effect of stakeholder interaction on the effectiveness of a spatial plan. It is anticipated that the study’s findings will have a positive impact on the policies and land use legislations of regional and national governments. The UN postulates that in the next three decades, much of the world’s population will be living in the cities (Clinton, Bottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormTop of FormC2001). The rapid population growth in urban areas is placing immense pressure on available facilities and resources leading to a rise in urban poverty. This has become a big challenge to urban planners due to poor spatial planning policies. Empirical evidence su ggests that proper urban planning policies are essential for creating effective urban states, promoting development and attaining MDGs (Sartorio, 2005). However, a framework for incorporating the views of the diverse stakeholders (people, social agencies and political players) is largely lacking in many countries. This study aims to identify the factors that influence spatial planning and to provide a framework for stakeholder interaction during the planning process.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Strategic Spatial Planning Evaluation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conceptual Framework From the literature review, spatial planning is an important tool for coping with the challenges of urban planning. Stakeholders (people and organizations) can be involved in the planning, evaluation and implementation phases of the urban spatial planning process. In the planning phase, the stakeholders would play a role in setting objectives and activities of the plans. During the evaluation and implementation phases, the stakeholders will participate in the choice of spatial plan options that best suit their interests. The conceptual framework is shown in figure 1 below. Summary of Methodology The proposed study is an exploratory research that examines the relationship between stakeholder engagement during spatial planning and product performance. Using a case study approach, the study will explore this relationship through an in-depth analysis of urban developments in the U.S. The case study approach will allow the researcher to assess the extent to which stakeholder interaction affect the performance of urban developments. This approach will give insights into the connection between interaction during planning and performance. It will yield in-depth knowledge on the impact of interaction on spatial planning. Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Limitations of the Study This research will measure the per formance of spatial planning based on the level of stakeholder engagement in the planning process. This approach may differ from the other approaches adopted in similar studies since there is no standard methodology for measuring performance.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, the findings may not entirely represent the dynamic relationships between performance and stakeholder involvement. Another potential limitation of this research relates to context. Often, the effectiveness of spatial planning depends on environmental factors that are specific to a particular site or case. Thus, context variable may limit the external validity of this study. Definition of Terms Strategy– Is defined as â€Å"the pattern or plan that integrates an organization’s major goals, policies and action sequences into a cohesive whole† (Clinton, Bottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormTop of FormC2001, p. 8). Stakeholders– â€Å"Are those groups without whose support the organization would cease to exist† (Callies, 2009, p. 91). Spatial planning– Is a modern approach for urban planning, which is regulated by regional and national governments of countries. Stakeholder interaction– refers to the degree of participation and influence of different stakeholders during the spatial planning process (Wilkinson et al., 2013). Research Design and Methodology Methodology The study is an exploratory study that aims to provide in-depth knowledge and analyses regarding the effectiveness of spatial planning in the United States. It uses the case study methodology to explore the relationships between stakeholder engagement and the effectiveness of a spatial plan. This approach is appropriate because it will satisfy contextual conditions associated with spatial planning studies. Faludi (2000) states that a case study approach is applicable in studies with the â€Å"how† or â€Å"why† research questions and involve events beyond the researcher’s control. Since the proposed study will involve cases in the U.S., experimental approaches may not be applicable as these exclude contextual issues. Therefore, in this research, multiple cases (5 research units) will be investig ated to generate in-depth knowledge regarding the relationship between effectiveness (spatial planning) and interaction (stakeholder). Thus, a representative sample of cases will be selected for this study. The researcher opted for a multiple case study instead of a single case study because of two reasons. First, multiple case studies can be generalized to similar settings or contexts (March, 2010). They argue that enhanced external validity does not mean more cases. Rather, adequate sampling that includes cases that are diverse can increase the external validity of a study’s findings. The second reason is to reduce researcher bias that may arise when the researcher selects a non-representative case for investigation. Multiple case studies also facilitate the comparison of similarities and differences among different cases, which helps strengthen the theoretical knowledge. Research Questions and Hypothesis As aforementioned, the main research question of this research is: Do es stakeholder (people and organizations) involvement during industrial areas planning influence product/process performance? Deriving from the main question are the minor research questions, which include: What constitutes interactive planning in the urban planning process? What are the elements of an effective spatial planning process? How is the effectiveness and appropriateness of spatial planning measured? Does stakeholder interaction during spatial planning process influence product performance? Do in-depth analyses of scenarios enhance the effectiveness of spatial planning? The study will test the null hypothesis that stakeholder involvement has no impact on the performance of urban industrial areas. The findings of the study will shape the hypothesis for the study. Research Procedures The criteria for conducting a case study research involve standard procedures for data collection and analysis. This research will adopt the case study approach to explore the relationship be tween interaction and performance/effectiveness of spatial plans. The criteria consist of several steps, which will be described in the subsequent sections. Step 1: Defining the Research Questions In the first step, the main research question is stated in general terms. This facilitates systematic data collection. In this research, the main research question and minor questions have been defined. Based on the data the minor research questions will generate, it will be possible to identify the relationship between interactions during the spatial planning process (question 1) and the performance of spatial plans (question 4). Step 2: Inclusion Criteria Identifying the relevant cases to include in the study sample is the second step. As stated above, the study will involve five cases (research units), which will be strategically selected to enhance internal and external validity of the study’s findings. Five industrial areas will be selected from the U.S. based on the following inclusion criteria. First, since the study focuses on the impact of interaction on spatial plans’ performance, the contextual conditions have to be the same. Thus, only cases in the U.S. will be selected. Second, only cases currently in the plan-making stage of spatial planning will be selected. At this stage, the zoning plan is being formulated, which implies that the level of stakeholder interaction is comparatively high. Thus, cases at this stage will have different levels of stakeholder involvement. Step 3: Developing Data Collection Instruments and procedures This step focuses on the data collection instruments and procedures. One advantage of using a case study approach is that it allows for triangulation of methods. Triangulation is a research technique that generates a single outcome based on multiple sources of data (March, 2010). Thus, multiple case studies enhance the accuracy of the research findings since they involve multiple sources of information. The proposed research will use two data collection methods: (1) interviews (semi-structured) and; (2) analysis of secondary sources/documents. The interviews will involve semi-structured questions, which include both open-ended and specific/closed questions. The open-ended questions will probe the participant’s responses to the specific questions. Various stakeholders will be interviewed in a two-part interview, three months apart. Besides interviews, documents will be used as sources of data. Examples of documents that will be analyzed include zoning plans (drafts), newsletters and project plans. The researcher will also analyze the information provided in the municipalities’ websites and other city council databases. The researcher will use the data collected from these sources to describe the spatial characteristics and the effect of interaction on the performance of U.S. urban industrial areas. Step 4: Field Data Collection Albrechts (2004) states that, when analyzing spatial plans, the processes of data collection and data analysis should occur simultaneously. In this step, the researcher will collect data (respondents’ answers) during the interviews. Emerging issues or questions in the first interview will be probed further in the second interview. The data collected will be presented in tables to illustrate the underlying relationships. Step 5: Data Analysis In this step, data analysis for each case will take place. In this study, the five cases will be analyzed individually to determine if and whether there is a relationship between interaction and performance. The spatial characteristics of each case will be outlined based on the data obtained from zoning plans and project plans. Data analysis will also encompass the description of the main stakeholders for each case as well as their level of interaction. The findings from the first and second analysis will be further analyzed to determine the correlation between performance and interaction ( Mastop Faludi, 1997). The stakeholders participate in the spatial planning process and thus, are well-positioned to assess the process. The analysis will rely on the data collected from the stakeholders through the interviews. The interpretation of the findings will indicate the dynamic and static relationships between the two variables (performance and planning). Step 6: Cross-case Analysis After analyzing each case individually, the researcher will compare the different cases to identify the underlying relationships. In this step, the analysis will focus on the nature of the relationship (dynamic or static) between stakeholder participation and performance, the contextual factors in each case and the specific strategic planning factors in each case. Step 7: Hypothesis Testing Based on the findings of within-case and cross-case analyses, the hypothesis proposed above will be tested. These analyses will reveal the patterns and relationships between the variables (interaction and pe rformance). The emergent concepts and themes will be compared with literature to identify similarities or departures from similar studies. This will also contribute to the growth of knowledge on this topic. References Albrechts, L. (2004). Strategic (spatial) planning reexamined. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 31(1), 743-758. Callies, D. (2009). Casenote legal briefs: Keyed to courses using Callies, Freilich, and Roberts’s land use. New York: Aspen Publishers. Clinton, H. (Bottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormBottom of FormTop of FormC2001). Integrating geology in urban planning: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Viet Nam. New York: United Nations. Faludi, A. (2000). The performance of spatial planning, Planning Practice Research, 15(4), 299-318. Healey, P. (2003). Collaborative planning in perspective. Planning Theory, 2(2), 101-123 . March, A. (2010). Practising theory: When theory affects urban planning. Planning Theory, 9(2), 108-125. Mastop, H., Faludi, A. (1997). Evaluation of strategic plans: The performance principle. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 24(1), 815–832. Sartorio, S. (2005). Strategic spatial planning. DisP, 163(3), 26-40. Tewdwr-Jones, M. (2003). Creating and shaping places with purpose, vision and pride. International Planning Studies, 8(1), 3-8. Wilkinson, C., Saarne, D., Peterson, G., Colding, J. (2013). Strategic spatial planning and the ecosystem services concept -An historical exploration. Ecology and Society, 18(1), 37-38. This proposal on Strategic Spatial Planning Evaluation was written and submitted by user Charlie Holder to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Italian Present Perfect Tense - Il Passato Prossimo

Italian Present Perfect Tense - Il Passato Prossimo The passato prossimo- grammatically referred to as the present perfect- expresses a fact or action that happened in the recent past or that occurred long ago but still has ties to the present. It’s a compound tense (tempo composto), which means that you need to use an auxiliary verb  - either â€Å"essere† or â€Å"avere† -   plus a past participle. An example of a past participle would be â€Å"mangiato† for the verb â€Å"mangiare†. If you want to talk about events that happened repeatedly in the past, like going to your Italian lesson every Sunday, or telling a story, you’ll need to use the imperfect tense. Here Are a Few Examples of How the Passato Prossimo  Appears in Italian: Ti ho appena chiamato. - I just called you.Mi sono iscritto/a alluniversit quattro anni fa. - I entered university four years ago.Questa mattina sono uscito/a presto. - This morning I left early.Il Petrarca ha scritto sonetti immortali. - Petrarca wrote enduring sonnets. How to Form the Past Tense In order to form the past tense, there are two main things you need to know. Does the verb you want to use need the auxiliary verb â€Å"essere† or â€Å"avere†?What is the past participle of the verb you want to use? For example, if you wanted to say, â€Å"I went to Rome last summer†, you would need to use the verb â€Å"andare†. The verb â€Å"andare† takes the verb â€Å"essere† as a helper, or auxiliary, verb because it’s a verb that has to do with motion. Then, the past participle of the verb â€Å"andare† is â€Å"andato†. However, when you use the verb â€Å"essere† as an auxiliary verb, the past participle MUST agree in number and gender. Ad esempio: L’estate scorsa sono andato a Roma. - I went to Rome last summer. (masculine, singular)L’estate scorsa sono andata a Roma. - I went to Rome last summer. (feminine, singular)L’estate scorsa mia sorella e mia madre sono andate a Roma. - My sister and mother went to Rome last summer. (feminine, plural)L’estate scorsa siamo andati a Roma. - We went to Rome last summer. (masculine, plural) If you’re using â€Å"avere† as an auxiliary verb, it’s much simpler as the past participle does not have to agree in number and gender (that is, unless you’re using direct object pronouns.) For example, let’s use the sentence, â€Å"I watched that movie†. First, you need to use the verb â€Å"guardare - to watch†. The past participle of â€Å"guardare† is â€Å"guardato†. Then you conjugate your auxiliary verb â€Å"avere† into the first person singular, which is â€Å"ho†. The sentence then becomes, â€Å"Ho guardato quel film†. TIP: If the verb you’re using is reflexive, like â€Å"innamorarsi - to fall in love†, you need to use â€Å"essere† as your auxiliary verb. For example, â€Å"Ci siamo innamorati due anni fa. - We fell in love two years ago.† When to Use Il Passato Prossimo (Present Perfect) Instead of L’Imperfetto (Imperfect) It is notoriously difficult to correctly decide between il passato prossimo and l’imperfetto when you try talking about the past in Italian. While there are some rules for when to choose one or the other, it’s also helpful to know which phrases are typically used with il passato prossimo. The following table lists some adverbial expressions that are often used with the passato prossimo: Common Expressions Used With Il Passato Prossimo ieri yesterday ieri pomeriggio yesterday afternoon ieri sera last night il mese scorso last month laltro giorno the other day stamattina this morning tre giorni fa three days ago

What influence has prince charles had on the design of british Essay

What influence has prince charles had on the design of british architecture - Essay Example According to him the modern architecture did more harm than good to the city of London. The high-rise office and residential buildings according to him are overshadowing the ecstatic beauty of the historic architecture of the city. He suggested imposing limitations and controlling on the designs of new buildings within 500 yards of historic landmark. The material the modern architects are using and the heights of the new constructions should also be restricted (Lohr, 1987). His grave criticism about modern architecture attracted a wide range of discussion and debate. According to Ken Shuttleworth, the lead designer of 30 St. Mary Axe also known as Gherkin, the city of London cannot be preserved as a museum. London is now attempting to lead the world in several aspects and at this juncture its economic and industrial growth should not be curbed by imposing some restrictions on the modern constructions needed (Booth, 2008). The Prince has been accused of curtailing the freedom of the modern architects forcing them towards bad design. In more recent years Lord Rogers attracted criticism from Prince Charles about the high rise buildings. But he is the one who made high-rise living receive support from the Blair Government. The urban policy of the government is now trying to construct more living space in a small area and the concept of high-rise buildings completely suits the bill. The detractors argued that the Prince is taking a generalized view of the w hole culture. He wants to design the city according to his own taste and in doing so he is trying to deny the need of the day and the wishes of the younger population for modern architecture. But the views of the Prince surely enjoy the backing of the mass in terms of its environmental aspect. The modern architecture is surely losing some popularity now a days in Britain. Prince Charles argued that the new

Business Strategic report of Peets Coffee and Tea Research Paper

Business Strategic report of Peets Coffee and Tea - Research Paper Example Peet’s coffee competes with smaller coffeehouses such as Tully’s and Caribou Coffee. For it to gain an upper hand, Peet’s coffee should differentiate its products from those of its competitors. It can achieve this by selling itself to the consumers as a memorable experience. Moreover, it should focus its coffee business to a single distribution channel, for instance, the grocery. As a result, this would enhance the company brand awareness in those areas. The current recession in the US economy could severely affect Peet business since sales revenue based on luxurious coffee brand depends entirely on consumer confidence.Peet coffee focuses on the production of high-quality coffee products. It is known for its introduction of dark roasted Arabica coffee in the US market. The company has one of the finest group of roasters who are considered to have great mastery in their craft after undergoing three of training. Peet runs its roasting activities in a recently opene d facility in California. The facility was developed in a design that conserved energy and had minimal environmental impact.The company has managed to attract and maintain a large group of loyal consumers who call themselves the â€Å"Peetnicks† although the term as evolved to include consumers that adore quality coffee and tea. Peet coffee has a wide variety of signature blends such as French Roast, Espresso Forte, Fair Trade Blend, and Arabian Mocha-Java. Its stores located in most parts of the country offer 2-hour free wireless internet for its customers.

Starbucks and Peets Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Starbucks and Peets - Research Paper Example Their intense performance, growth, and investments warrant investigative studies. As such, this paper will seek to analyze the fundamental philosophical differences in their styles of management, how they launch and handle products, as well as their systems of marketing products and services. Additionally, this paper will develop a face-off strategy based on electronic commerce approach that sets one rival company apart from the other. Other aspects that this paper will resolve to explore include future challenges that these companies face and how the decisions that they make affect the company’s performance. Fundamental philosophical differences between the two companies According to reliable sources, Starbucks does not have any philosophical management styles. However, it does put a lot of emphasis on some strategies that makes it flexible and different from its competitors. For instance, the company puts a strong sense of ownership on its staff. From the highest rank to the lowest level, every employee has the responsibility and dedication to carry the success of the company with a strong and encouraging context (Ford, Sturman, & Heaton, 2011). In addition, Starbucks management style revolves around the belief that, everything concerning coffee matters. On the other hand, Peet’s coffee store practices an autocratic style of management whereby, leaders at the headquarters makes all the decisions while the subordinate staff implements them (Mottern, 2002). This is a very sharp fundamental philosophical difference between these two stores since analytical research and analysis describes Starbuck’s system of management as permissive. Launch and handling of products and services More focus based on establishing how Starbucks and Peets launches and handles their products and services set forth that, both companies maintain database records in which they keep customers’ trends (Pride, Hughes, & Kapoor, 2010). However, Starbucks is differ ent from Peets and the rest of the competitors in that, it uses factors like business-to-business strategies of marketing to launch and handle products (Smith, 2007). It also incorporates considerable measures that comprise of customer pinpoint and identification of early adopters where the company involves three main types of customers. They include program buyers, transaction buyers, and relationship buyers. In this case, Starbucks launches and handles its products through a chain of network created by these types of customers. Other methods incorporate use of the internet and massive television and radio advertisements. As in the case of Peet’s, this coffee store is unique from Starbucks as it uses sub elastic measures to launch and handle its products. First, it tests its marketing strategy then introduces the concept of marketing implementation (Mottern, 2002). Agreeably, it is hard to dash headlong to launch a product without first carrying market testing. After this st age, Peet’s uses its relations department to initiate campaign roll out aimed at launching a new product or service

Benefits of Keeping a Fish Aquarium at Home

Benefits of Keeping a Fish Aquarium at Home THE AQAURIUM THERAPY: POSITIVE EFFECTS OF FISH- KEEPING ON HEALTH AND LIFE. Omkar Pokharkar Abstract: Fish-keeping is a fantastic hobby enjoyed all over the world. It is simply amazing how one individual can sit in front of the aquarium spending hours staring and admiring colorful fishes and their habitat. It is mind boggling how people can kill time with this interesting hobby. This hobby is a boon to the people who lead a stressful life and have cardiovascular disorders/problem. By pursuing this hobby one can experience calmness and happiness effectively reducing stress levels and hence keeping the blood pressure in check. This paper points out only the outline of possible events occurring in the brain and not the detailed mechanism of action of each neurochemicals. With the help of neuroscience it is now possible to understand the correlation between the aquarium and brain neurochemicals which are secreted when an individual gazes at fishes and the dà ©cor of the aquarium. People practicing aqua-hobby are less susceptible to heart diseases, and live a longer and happy life. This concludes that by having an aquarium in the house, the illness caused by stress and other emotional trauma can be effectively tackled to some extent without any mental health medications. Keywords: fish, aquariums, health, therapy, ornamental, neurochemicals. INTRODUCTION: Humans had a long history of capturing and domesticating the animals for their benefits. Humans used animals for production of dairy products, for agricultural production, to obtain meat etc. But certain animals such as fish were also kept captive in tanks for decorational purposes. History of fish-keeping can be traced back to Sumerians around 2500 B.C. Egyptians used to worship fish and romans too used fish as both food and decoration in 1st century A.D. These evidences are based on archeological findings. Chinese during the sung dynasty kept large number of fishes such as ‘carps’ just for decorative purposes and not for consumption. People during these days were not familiar to the concept of â€Å"water change† to remove the excess ammonia caused due to fish waste in the tank and as a result the fishes used to die frequently. In 1805, Robert Warrington found out the concept of water change to keep the fish healthy for long time. First public aquaria were opene d in London at Regents Park in 1853 and took fish-keeping to a whole new level. In 1853, German Emil Robmaber wrote an essay stating that; sea can be captured in a glass, which introduced fish-keeping hobby to the public making it popular. Now in 21st century due to advancement in the field of aquarium technology it has become more convenient to master the hobby and gain health benefits from it, modern aquarium technology acts as the life support system for fishes in the tank making them thrive comfortably in captive for a long period of time. BENEFITS OF FISH-KEEPING ON HEALTH: Stabilizes Blood pressure and induce calmness: Ideal blood pressure is below 120/80, and it must remain in this range for good health. When the blood pressure stabilizes there is a drop in stress levels which is necessary for optimum health. Studies around the globe proved that gazing at a fish aquarium stabilizes the blood pressure which offers a great health benefit for an individual suffering from cardiovascular disorders. Watching the fish swimming in the aquarium with their dazzling colors can induce deep relaxation state. This is extremely therapeutic as it takes away the anxiety and clears the mind of all unnecessary thoughts. This practice of gazing the aquarium and watch beautiful ornamental fishes swim in shoals triggers neurochemicals in the brain called as ‘GABA’ which is an amino acid acting as a neurotransmitter in CNS and it acts by inhibiting or slowing the nerve transmission in the brain reducing the anxiety hence called as Anti-anxiety neurochemical. (See Figure I) and ‘Serotonin’ or 5- hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter produced both in brain and gastrointestinal tract which is capable of stabilizing the mood. Serotonin maintains a balance between breathing and heart rate, it regulates the sleep cycle, regulates body temperature and pH levels in blood. (See Figure II). (smith, 2014) Figure I. Structure of a GABA molecule Chemical formula-C4H9NO2 Figure II. Structure of serotonin molecule Chemical formula-C10H12N2O Helps Alzheimer/dementia patients Alzheimer’s disease is brain disorder that gradually destroys the memory, thinking skills and ultimately destroys the ability to perform the routine tasks. Fish aquariums induce general sensory stimulation which helps individuals suffering from Alzheimer to eat better, gain weight and stay mentally active. Watching the fish swim, the attention span of patient increases and aggressive behavior reduces to a great extent. The technique that emerged from Neuro-research clinics involved restoring appropriate levels of the master neurotransmitters like serotonin and the catecholamine group such as dopamine and adrenaline. There is an opinion that watching a nicely decorated aquarium with beautiful fishes can naturally induce these neurotransmitters in the brain to some extent. Adrenaline is the neurochemical which is produced by the adrenal glands located at the top of the kidneys and is responsible for an energy surge in the body which takes away the dullness (see Figure III) and d opamine is a neurochemical which acts as a messenger that aids in the proper transmission of signals in brain and other organs. This neurotransmitter is produced in several parts of the brain such as substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. It is also released by hypothalamus (see Figure IV). (darling, 2015) Figure III. Structure of adrenaline molecule Chemical formula- C9H13NO3 (Macà ©us, 2011) Figure IV. Structure of dopamine molecule Chemical formula- C8H11NO2 Induces a sudden sense of happiness In this competitive and challenging world, there is a huge amount of stress which every individual experiences and it leads to depression or sadness. An aquarium in the house is a perfect solution to get refreshed and it gives a break from the outside world. The sadness and dullness is washed away by simply gazing and admiring the fishes that swim in the tank (see Figure V). Neurochemical such as Endocannabinoids are self-produced cannabisthat acts on the ‎Cannabinoid receptor type 1and 2 of the cannabinoid system. The word ‘Anandamide’ is derived from a Sanskrit word â€Å"Ananda† meaning Bliss or happiness (see Figure VI). It is the most well-known endocannabinoid. This neurochemical is responsible for surge in happiness. (jeffrey senske, 2015) Figure V. Red Discus fish and tetras (Cronk, 2014) Figure VI. Structure of ‘Anandamide’ molecule Chemical formula-C22H37NO2 Benefits hyperactive children Hyperactive kids sometimes can cause a lot of mess in the house; they often have very low focus span and are more notorious. Bringing an aquarium in the house can reduce their hyperactivity and will stay more focused and calm, simply because the fish swimming inside the tank distract children from their hyperactive behavior. In this case, the excess adrenalin rush in hyperactive kids is minimized by a surge in secretion of GABA which occurs due to watching fishes swim. It simply eliminates the transmissions in brain, producing calm effect. Benefits the eyes The fast pace of urbanization is putting lot of pressure on the urban infrastructure in the cities. To see a green patch in the concrete jungles has become nearly impossible. Human eyes can see up to 7 million colors out of these some are eye irritants for instance; bright yellow and some are relaxing like different shades of green. The green color is more desired by the eyes as it feels more relaxing. So an aquarium planted with variety of live plants and driftwood can help stimulate greenery in the house which would be soothing for both eyes and mind (see Figure VII). Many eye specialists have an opinion that, gazing at planted fish aquariums daily for at least 1 hour can significantly improve the vision of an individual. (huachinango, 2013) Figure VII. Blue Discus fish and tetras BENEFITS OF FISH-KEEPING ON LIFE: Education for both children and adults: When children see an aquarium filled with beautiful ornamental fishes in hotels or restaurants they get excited and at the same time start asking questions about the fish. Adults too sometimes get confused and often don’t know anything about the fish species or their natural habitat. A solution to this problem is to simply buy an aquarium and house some fishes from a wide range of habitats. And many books on fishes are available in market which describes in detail the origin of fishes for instance (see Figure VIII). Children can learn how to care for pets; they will become more responsible towards another living creature. They can witness the life cycle of a fish and appreciate biology. They may choose to become a marine biologist or aqua culturist. ( Atsushi Sakurai, 1993) Figure VIII. A Book describing 650 fish species Enhances the interior look of the house: Bringing a fish aquarium can incredibly enhance the inside look of an average house. A big aquarium with live plants, driftwoods and small tropical or other ornamental fishes placed in the right directions in such a way that the tank is visible from every corner of the room would intensify the look of that room. Many people buy aquarium just to improve the look of their living room and bed room (see Figure IX below). Flowing Water from the Filter units in the aquarium make continuous water trickling sound which is music to the ears. (Melissa, 2012) Figure IX. Bedroom with an aquarium for a peaceful sleep CONCLUSION From the points mentioned above it is clear that having an aquarium can significantly influence life and health. Aquariums can heal a stressed out body and mind making it clear of all unwanted thoughts which reduces the stress and blood pressure. Watching beautiful fishes swim in the aquarium provides a break to the viewer from all the routine work in life and cause a sense of relaxation or calmness. It helps kids to gain knowledge about variety of fishes and learn how to care for them. Hyperactive kids become quite and calm. These positive effects on health are caused due to secretion of neurochemicals influenced by gazing at colorful active fishes swimming in the tank. This paper contains a simple explanation of how neurotransmitter in brain can get influenced by this hobby. These neurochemicals include Endocannabinoids, serotonin, GABA, and adrenaline which when are deficient or secreted in low amounts can cause high stress and depression levels. So it’s safe to say that aq uariums can reduce suicidal tendencies in people by regulating these heavenly chemicals in the brain. REFERENCES: [1] smith, P. (2014). balancing brain chemistry with peter smith. Retrieved april 2015, from www.balancingbrainchemistry.co.uk: http://www.balancingbrainchemistry.co.uk/33/GABA-Deficient-Anxiety.html [2] darling, D. (2015). Encyclopedia of science. Retrieved april 2015, from The worlds of david darling: http://www.daviddarling.info/images/adrenaline.png [3] Macà ©us, J. (2011, april 1). Dark side of the bigO. Retrieved april 2015, from sexual health site: http://www.sexualhealthsite.info/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Dopamine.png [4] jeffrey senske. (2015). aqaurium design group. (j. s. mark senske, Producer, ADG) Retrieved april 2015, from www.aqauriumdesigngroup.com: http://www.aquariumdesigngroup.com/index.php#mi=2pt=1pi=10000s=14p=0a=0at=0 [5] Cronk, J. D. (2014, november 15). Biochemstry dictionary. Retrieved april 2015, from www.guweb2.gonzaga.edu: http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/cronk/biochem/A-index.cfm?definition=A [6] huachinango. (2013, october 10). petco. Retrieved april 2015, from www.community.petco.com: https://community.petco.com/t5/General-Discussions/Planning-a-future-aquarium/td-p/42577/page/2 [7] Atsushi Sakurai, Y. S. (1993, november 1). Aquarium Fish of the World: The Comprehensive Guide to 650 Species. Retrieved april 2015, from http://www.amazon.com: http://www.amazon.com/Aquarium-Fish-World-Comprehensive-Species/dp/0811802698 [8] Melissa. (2012). the home decoration. Retrieved april 2015, from melissasheartandhome: http://melissasheartandhome.blogspot.in/2014/05/aquarium-design.html

Bernard Shaws Mrs. Warrens Profession Essay -- Bernard Shaw Warrens

Bernard Shaw's Mrs. Warren's Profession In Mrs. Warren’s Profession, Shaw presents prostitution as a result of few economic opportunities for lower class women (rather than of hedonism, laziness, or depravity, as was commonly believed at the time this play was written) through the characters of Mrs. Warren and her daughter Vivie. When Vivie initially finds out her mother was once a prostitute, she responds in the typical Victorian fashion: with scorn and indignation. The prevailing mindset of the time was one that lauded personal responsibility. It assumed agency in each citizen that, if not complete, was at least enough so that any respectable person could avoid unrespectable vocations. When confronted with the information that her mother was, at least at one time, involved in the epitome of unrespectable vocations, Vivie says, â€Å"Everybody has some choice, mother†¦ People are always blaming their circumstances for what they are. I dont believe in circumstances. The people who get on in this world are the people who get up and look for the circumstances they want, and, if they cant find them, make them† (Norton 1831). However, Vivie’s mother responds to her daughter’s very Victorian assumption by showing just how much choice her â€Å"respectable† half sisters had. She says, â€Å"One of them worked in a whitelead factory twelve hours a day for nine shillings a week until she died of lead poisoning† (1831). The other one married a drunk. Her full sister Lizzie, on the other hand, became a prostitute and, as such, quite successful. When the two sisters ran into each other at a restaurant where Mrs. Warren was â€Å"wearing out [her] health and [her] appearance for other people’s profit† (1832) being a waitress, Liz explains to her that h... ...aying economics, rather than some personal, moral flaw, as the cause of prostitution, Shaw challenges the status quo belief that sees it as a self-contained immoral phenomenon. Without excusing its vices, he explains that it is neither a cause nor a result of hedonism and moral depravity, but rather that these are all effects of a common cause: an economic system that provides women with so few opportunities that they are forced to use their femininity as a commodity, something that hypocritical British society did not mind at all. A patriarchal society that is accustomed to wielding power over women through money and marriage, as Crofts puts it, â€Å"doesnt ask any inconvenient questions† (1843). Works Cited Shaw, Bernard. "Mrs. Warren’s Profession." The Norton Anthology of English Literature.7th Ed. Vol. 2. Ed. Abrams, et al. London: Norton, 1962. 1810-1856. Bernard Shaw's Mrs. Warren's Profession Essay -- Bernard Shaw Warren's Bernard Shaw's Mrs. Warren's Profession In Mrs. Warren’s Profession, Shaw presents prostitution as a result of few economic opportunities for lower class women (rather than of hedonism, laziness, or depravity, as was commonly believed at the time this play was written) through the characters of Mrs. Warren and her daughter Vivie. When Vivie initially finds out her mother was once a prostitute, she responds in the typical Victorian fashion: with scorn and indignation. The prevailing mindset of the time was one that lauded personal responsibility. It assumed agency in each citizen that, if not complete, was at least enough so that any respectable person could avoid unrespectable vocations. When confronted with the information that her mother was, at least at one time, involved in the epitome of unrespectable vocations, Vivie says, â€Å"Everybody has some choice, mother†¦ People are always blaming their circumstances for what they are. I dont believe in circumstances. The people who get on in this world are the people who get up and look for the circumstances they want, and, if they cant find them, make them† (Norton 1831). However, Vivie’s mother responds to her daughter’s very Victorian assumption by showing just how much choice her â€Å"respectable† half sisters had. She says, â€Å"One of them worked in a whitelead factory twelve hours a day for nine shillings a week until she died of lead poisoning† (1831). The other one married a drunk. Her full sister Lizzie, on the other hand, became a prostitute and, as such, quite successful. When the two sisters ran into each other at a restaurant where Mrs. Warren was â€Å"wearing out [her] health and [her] appearance for other people’s profit† (1832) being a waitress, Liz explains to her that h... ...aying economics, rather than some personal, moral flaw, as the cause of prostitution, Shaw challenges the status quo belief that sees it as a self-contained immoral phenomenon. Without excusing its vices, he explains that it is neither a cause nor a result of hedonism and moral depravity, but rather that these are all effects of a common cause: an economic system that provides women with so few opportunities that they are forced to use their femininity as a commodity, something that hypocritical British society did not mind at all. A patriarchal society that is accustomed to wielding power over women through money and marriage, as Crofts puts it, â€Å"doesnt ask any inconvenient questions† (1843). Works Cited Shaw, Bernard. "Mrs. Warren’s Profession." The Norton Anthology of English Literature.7th Ed. Vol. 2. Ed. Abrams, et al. London: Norton, 1962. 1810-1856.

Frankenstein and Science

Chapter 1 Introduction Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall When Evelyn Fox Keller wrote that ‘Frankenstein is a story first and foremost about the consequences of male ambitions to co-opt the procreative function’, she took for granted an interpretive consensus amongst late twentieth-century critical approaches to the novel. Whilst the themes had been revealed as ‘considerably more complex than we had earlier thought’, Fox Keller concludes ‘the major point remains quite simple’. The consensus might be characterised a little more broadly than this – as a view that the novel is about masculinity and scientific hubris – and has led to an enduring use of the title as a byword for the dangerous potential of the scientific over-reacher: It was in this vein that Isaac Asimov coined the term ‘the Frankenstein complex’ to describe the theme of his robot stories in the 1940s, and The Frankenstein Syndrome is the title for a colle ction of essays on genetic engineering published in 1995. This collection takes a very different approach to the novel, seeking to reopen the question of how science and scientific ambition are portrayed in the story by offering a range of historical perspectives, based on detailed accounts of areas of scientific knowledge that are relevant to it. Frankenstein was published in 1818, in a cultural and political climate fraught with contrary ideals. The editors of this collection take it for granted that a successful work of literature is always overdetermined and that it is neither possible nor desirable to formulate a precise and conclusive interpretation of any work of fiction. The wealth of debates and controversies that were going on at the time when Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein make it an urgent task to provide a space in which these discourses can be heard once again. If we listen carefully for the contextual arguments into which the assessment of the benefits and dangers of a new discovery were embedded, we may have to relinquish the assumption (implicit in Fox Keller’s statement and explicit in the majority of late twentieth-century interpretations) that this is a novel with an anti-Promethean message. In doing so, we can gain a more complex understanding of the cross-fertilisations between radical politics and the dramas of scientific exploration. Of course, not every scientist subscribed to radical politics. But considering that most scientists investigating completely new areas of interest had very little sense of where their discoveries would lead them, questions about their consequences were uppermost in people’s minds. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, utopian thinking about the vast social benefits made possible by scientific innovation was a powerful force for good. Advances in 2 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall anatomy, chemistry, electricity, engineering and the exploration sciences were saving lives and creating vast new economic possibilities, besides giving rise to some of the darker forms of human exploitation associated with the industrial revolution. An intelligent appraisal of these consequences required the kind of analytical vision that strikes us in Frankenstein. The end of the eighteenth century is a turning point often called a ‘second scientific revolution’, which Patricia Fara sees as characterized by new levels of confidence in the commercial and social impact of scientific research. 3 One of the definitive influences on this cultural change was Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802). Darwin was a figure larger than life: a pragmatist and idealist, a prolific writer of exuberant verse, a polymathic inventor and a medical practitioner with an uninhibited brief to experiment on his patients. As co-founder and ‘recruiting sergeant’ for the Lunar Society from the 1760s, he presided over the most formidable powerhouse of scientific talent in eighteenth-century England. 4 Members included Josiah Wedgewood (1730–95), Mathew Boulton (1728–1809), Joseph Priestley (1733– 1804) and James Watt (1736–1819). They made breakthrough discoveries in steam power, chemical manufacture, optics, geology and electricity. 5 The driving enthusiasms for their world came from the prospect of its immediate application in industry and commerce. If steam power was the most profitable field of research in terms of its immediate industrial impact, electricity was revolutionary in a more comprehensive and spectacular way. It was electricity that epitomized the Promethean spirit of the age and the American statesman and inventor Benjamin Franklin (1706–90) who ‘snatched the lightning from the heavens and the scepter from tyrants’, and came to symbolize all that was most inspiring about it. In a now famous letter written in 1787 and addressed simply to ‘Doctor Franklin, America’, Erasmus Darwin addressed him as ‘the greatest Statesman of the present, or perhaps of any century, who spread the happy contagion of Liberty among his countrymen; and †¦ delivered them from the house of bondage, and the scourge of oppression’. 6 The declamatory verve of this new scientific rhetoric inspired future generations. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin (1756–1836), admired Erasmus Darwin and shared his ideals. Her mother Mary Wollstonecraft (1759– 97), an incisive social analyst with a passion for the advancement of knowledge, developed her own style of Promethean statement in praising the revolutionary quest for a new order of intellectual life: But the irresistible energy of moral and political sentiments of half a century, at last kindled into a glaze the illuminating rays of truth, which, throwing new light on the mental powers of man, and giving fresh spring to his reasoning faculties, completely 7 undermined the strong holds of priestcraft and hypocrisy. Introduction 3 Darwin’s verses were a strong influence on the early writings of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), but the Shelleys and their circle were of a new generation who had to come to terms with the more horrific legacies of revolution in France, and with the reign of virulent backlash politics in England. The backlash began violently, with the gathering of ‘Church and King’ mobs who targeted those associated with all forms of new knowledge and ideas. Joseph Priestley was the subject of a campaign of public vilification, which culminated in the trashing of his laboratory in July 1791, on the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The intellectual climate in 1818, when Frankenstein was published, was fraught with political agendas and Mary Shelley’s place in it needs to be understood in relation to the allegiance of ideals and principles that bound her to her parents (to whom the novel is dedicated) and to a peer group in which the charismatic influence of Shelley and Byron were paramount. A reading of the novel as simply anti-Promethean, which has been fashionable through most of the twentieth century and especially through the influence of some feminist critics in the 1980s and 90s, fails to take account of the implications of anti-Promethean views for someone in Mary Shelley’s cultural circumstances, and of many of her own overt pronouncements. To a feminist in Wollstonecraft’s era, the idea that bold discovery and the quest for enhanced human power was against the interests of women would have been anathema. In the Romantic period, Prometheus was the hero of all those who sought liberation from oppression. In many respects, Frankenstein criticizes an attitude towards knowledge that came to be identified with the Enlightenment. Subsequent views have either eulogized its grand achievements or condemned its megalomaniac aspirations. Neither of these approaches has shed light on the broad palette of different approaches to the study of nature. In order to understand the full complexity of the period we, therefore, need to distance ourselves from a simplistic retrospective view that the Enlightenment was a period with a homogenous agenda about technological progress and the advancement of knowledge. The eighteenth century was no doubt dominated by monolithic movements that revised and modernised philosophical theories at the same time as planting the seed for the shared values of a democratic and prosperous society liberated from the shackles of superstition. Scholars like Ian Hunter have convincingly argued for the existence of multiple Enlightenments, whose agendas emerged from strongly conflicting ideas about the nature and purpose of human existence as individuals and members of society. The secularising influences of the age of Enlightenment tend to be upheld as key achievements. Although it is fair to say that the period radically curbed the Church’s direct influence on civic matters, the secularisation of public administration was unable to undermine the Christian foundation of European society. It is true that some members of the Enlightened intelligentsia embraced atheistic principles, but this was by no means a general development. So, it is 4 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall ossible to subdivide the multiple Enlightenments into the category of the empirical rationalists, on the one hand, and those who explore arcane and occult matters, on the other. Here it has to be noted that it is a response to the weakening of the power of the Church that lay investigators could encroach on its traditional prerogatives when they examined aspects of psyche, mind and consciousness and, by doing so, rejected the idea that those parts of the human being which were traditionally described by the term ‘soul’ should be excluded from empirical, physiological analysis. Importantly, though, science bridges the divide between sober empiricism and attempts to subject metaphysical issues to the scrutinising eyes of logical analysis. The hybrids between rationality and metaphysical speculation, called into existence by the crossovers between these two types of science, are a fertile backdrop to Victor Frankenstein’s introduction to the world of science. The locations of Frankenstein have been chosen with utmost care. Victor’s birthplace in Geneva positions him in the stronghold of Calvinism. At the same time, it alludes to the fact that Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) returned to this small republic on Lake Geneva as a refuge from the vices of France. Another significant setting for the formation of Victor’s mind is Ingolstadt, a Bavarian town with a recently founded university (1759) that adopted progressive principles and aimed to achieve social reform. Ingolstadt became famous throughout Europe in the early 1780s for a particular brand of Enlightenment: the order of the Illuminati who describe themselves simply by the Latin word for Enlightenment. It is true that Frankenstein does not contain any direct references to the Illuminism, or its founder Adam Weishaupt (1748–1811), but it is telling that the dates of Walton’s letters to his sister, ‘17—’, refer its action back to an anonymous time of the eighteenth century. It therefore seems to be fair to conclude that the pursuit of superhuman objectives must be located in the decade before the French Revolution, when all of Europe was intoxicated with a heady ferment of reformatory ideas and utopian visions. Weishaupt had been educated as a Jesuit but rejected this rigid form of Catholicism and became the first layman to be appointed for the chair of canon law at the University of Ingolstadt (1773). The contribution to the intellectual life of his university, though, was not sufficient for him. Sharing Victor Frankenstein’s immense craving to better the lot of mankind, he embarked on negotiations with the Freemasons. His unyielding temper rendered such a rapprochement difficult, so that he founded a new secret society, which was, however, modelled on this society. The joint efforts between Weishaupt and Adolf von Knigge (1752–96) guaranteed the enormous success of the new society between 1780 and 1782. Disagreement between the two leaders, along with public scandals and denunciations that the society was aiming for political sedition rather than the advancement of human welfare and scientific knowledge, caused serious suspicions. In 1787, the Bavarian government went so far as to forbid it under penalty of death. Introduction 5 The stated goals of the society of the Illuminati were to improve society through the cultivation of sensibility and the practice of scientific research. These objectives were shared by most contemporary intellectuals and it, therefore, attracted the leading lights of German intelligentsia, including Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) and Friedrich Nicolai (1733–1811). They joined as a means of dedicating themselves to an organised study and cultivation of human nature. The initiatory oath of new members of the order revolves around humanitarian principles: ‘I profess, and also pledge, that I will eagerly grasp every opportunity of serving humankind, will improve my knowledge and willpower, and will make generally available my useful recognitions, in so far as the welfare and statutes of this particular society will demand it of me. ’10 While pursuing similar goals as the philosophes, a group of French intellectuals dedicated themselves to the compilation of comprehensive information about the arts and the sciences to be collected in the one reference work of the Encyclopedie (1751–72). 1 The group of intellectuals around Denis Diderot (1713–84) and Jean D’Alembert (1717–83) aimed to spread knowledge as a means of breaking down privileges and abuses by church and nobility, which is why they advocated a strictly empiricist approach to science. While Weishaupt admired these spokespeople for reason and rationali ty, his own society embedded the practice of rationality and benevolence in an atmosphere of ritual. He also combined his commitment to pioneering scientific exploration with the exploration of the more esoteric borderlines between material and non-material phenomena. The emotional dimension to his practice of reason and rationality, for instance, consisted of the adoption of classical names for all members of the society. Weishaupt called himself Spartacus and Knigge was Philo. Weishaupt’s taste for secrecy led him to refer even to places by pseudonyms, ‘Athens’, for instance, standing for Munich and ‘Thessalonica’ for Mannheim. The veil of mystery also provided a cover for some serious agitations for the ‘elaboration and propagation of a new popular religion and †¦ the gradual establishment of a universal democratic republic’. 12 It was also a fertile environment for the observation of phenomena of psyche and soul. Although Weishaupt and Knigge are not directly recognisable in Shelley’s imaginary depiction of Ingolstadt, there are some revealing links between the heyday of Illuminism and the novel’s scientific culture. A striking coincidence is that the jubilant vision of scientific progress expressed by Professors Krempe and Waldheim positions them in the decade of the 1780s, which was also the time when Antoine de Lavoisier (1743–94) ousted the long-established belief that combustion was a process that released phlogiston – a colourless, tasteless and weightless substance believed to be present in every object as a latent principle waiting to be released. Lavoisier demonstrated the inconsistencies of the phlogiston theory in 1783 and published his own theories in 1789, demonstrating that conservation of mass is a fundamental principle not just in mechanical physics but also in chemistry. Lavoisier, importantly, proved the viability of quantitative 6 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall approaches to chemical processes, including respiration and other vital processes of the human body. 13 In Frankenstein the clash between the old and the new theories is pitched as a contrast between the ‘modern masters’ and ld alchemists. 14 After Krempe’s scornful response to Victor’s interest in their ‘exploded systems’ (29), the benevolent Waldman explains that ‘these were men to whose indefatigable zeal modern philosophers were indebted for most of the foundations of knowledge’ (31). The key figures in the alchemical tradition mentioned in the novel – Albertus Magnus (c. 1206–80), Cor nelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486–1535), and Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) – do not simply feature as scholars who made groundbreaking contributions to the history of science. Once he has lost his fascination for the old alchemists, Victor Frankenstein rationalises his attraction to their ideas as a craving for ‘boundless grandeur’ (30). Prior to studying at Ingolstadt, he describes his early quests for the ‘philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life’, and goes on to flesh out the moment of success: ‘what glory would attend the discovery, if I could banish disease from the human frame, and render man invulnerable to any but a violent death’ (23). If he has really studied the writings of these authors, he must have a more complex understanding of the symbolic qualities of key alchemical concepts, like the philosopher’s stone. The text of the novel is quiet about whether he ever pondered the capacity of this most cherished of substances to enable a mystic union between self and world. We can, therefore, only speculate if he was initially attracted to the authors of alchemical works because they embraced a holistic view of nature, which foregrounded strong resemblances between physical and metaphysical phenomena. It should also be noted that many scholars who broadly belong in the alchemical tradition explored the borderlines between mind and matter. Striking investigations of topics as diverse as social deviance, the origin of the Devil, the true skills of magicians, black and white magic, witchcraft, and the power of poisons and remedies are collected in the work of Johann Weyer, Agrippa’s most prominent disciple. 5 If stripped of its religious-demonic framework, Weyer’s insight into the psychology of delusions, obsessions, sexual deviance, as well as a whole range of ailments that would come to be classified as nervous diseases during the Romantic period, is truly remarkable. It, therefore, is no surprise that Romantic writers had a certain penchant for the works of the old alchemists. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin, himself embarked on a book-length study entitled Lives of the Necromancers (1834),16 in which he assessed their true achievements in a strictly sec ular light. As a stolid rationalist, Godwin must have wanted to cool his period’s enthusiasm for what he would have described as irrational obfuscation. Interest in the principles of life – the nervous system, the psyche and the soul – however, provides a connection between Weishaupt’s Illuminati, the ‘modern masters’ and the old alchemists. But as is illustrated by the fact that Weishaupt fell into general disgrace while Lavoisier came to be hailed as the founder of modern chemistry, the line between respectable pursuits and politically and otherwise Introduction 7 suspect explorations of the non-material aspects of human existence was easily crossed. 17 Nowhere was this boundary more richly confused than in the dramas of intellectual adventure conceived by Coleridge, Goethe, Shelley, Byron and other leading poets of the Romantic movement, in whose imaginative company Mary Shelley’s story was conceived. * There were strong elements of the uncanny about many of the scientific experiments that caught the public imagination during the first two decades of the nineteenth century. The legacy of Luigi Galvani (1737–98) was continued through the work of his nephew Giovanni Aldini (1762–1834), who in 1803 experimented on the corpse of a criminal recently executed at Newgate, to macabre effect. Electrical charges caused one eye to open, the legs to jolt and the hand to raise itself as if in greeting. In the same year, Aldini published a series of descriptions of his experiments, including some work on severed heads: The first of these decapitated criminals being conveyed to the apartment provided for my experiments, in the neighborhood of the place of execution, the head was first subjected to the Galvanic action. For this purpose I had constructed a pile consisting of a hundred pieces of silver and zinc. Having moistened the inside of the ears with salt water, I formed an arc with two metallic wires, which, proceeding from the two ears, were applied, one to the summit and the other to the bottom of the pile. When this communication was established, I observed strong contractions in the muscles of the face, which were contorted in so irregular a manner that they exhibited the appearance of the most horrid grimaces. The action of the eye-lids was exceedingly striking, 18 though less sensible in the human head than in that of an ox. But for the precision of its laboratory detail, this reads not unlike a scene from Mary Shelley’s novel. At the other end of the vitalist spectrum from the prospect of reanimation was that of spontaneous generation. In the same year as Aldini was engaging in his grisly, jaw-dropping work at the gallows, Erasmus Darwin’s imaginings were all light and life: And quick contraction with ethereal flame Lights into life the fibre-woven frame – Hence without parent by spontaneous birth Rise the first specks of animated earth. 19 The most notorious experiments in spontaneous generation were those conducted by Andrew Crosse (1784–1855) at his house in the Quantock hills in 1836, long after the publication of Frankenstein, but a diary entry by Mary Shelley indicates that she and Percy Bysshe Shelley attended one of Crosse’s early lectures in London on December 28, 1814. Crosse spoke and gave demonstrations on the topic 8 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall of ‘electricity and the elements’, describing in detail his methods of directing lightning currents in order to employ their power to generate light and motion. 0 The early nineteenth century was a time when the magic and mystique of science was crossing paths with an accelerating succession of immediately useful discoveries, and it was impossible to determine which of a range of mind-boggling prospects might become an actuality. The industrial revolution was in its most intensive phase. Human mobility was accelerated beyond all prev ious imagining, and concepts of geographic distance were correspondingly transformed. Richard Trevithick (1771–1833) built the first passenger steam carriage in 1801 and his steam locomotives were revolutionizing freight transport from 1804. In 1807 the first steamship passenger service to America was introduced. In 1816 the Leeds-Liverpool canal was completed. Work and productivity were likewise accelerated, with doubleedged consequences, as the bulk of manufactured goods grew exponentially, but so did the burden on those whose lot it was to operate the ‘dark satanic mills’. 1 A succession of riots and a growing movement of organized protest were features of this timespan, leading up to the Peterloo massacre in Manchester in early 1819. William Wordsworth, reflecting in 1814 on the transformations he was witnessing, tried to express both sides of the account: I grieve, when on the darker side Of this great change I look; and there behold Such outrage done to nature as compels The indignant power to justify herself; Yea, to avenge her violated righ ts, For England’s bane. And et I do exult, Casting reserve away, exult to see An intellectual mastery exercised O’er the blind elements; a purpose given, A perseverance fed; almost a soul Imparted – to brute matter. I rejoice, Measuring the force of those gigantic powers That, by the thinking mind, have been compelled To serve the will of feeble-bodied man. 22 Mary Shelley was part of the Romantic movement, socially and intellectually, and her view of science was accordingly influenced by the heightened perspectives of her contemporaries. Her protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, is a figure torn between the two kinds of vision expressed here by Wordsworth, and there are no easy conclusions to be reached about the inherent values and dangers of his enterprise. * Introduction 9 The main objective of this collection of essays is to bring to life the challenges and complexities of science as they are reflected in the novel. We have, therefore, brought together contributors who can offer readings of Frankenstein in light of the most relevant areas of the period’s scientific knowledge. Rather than focussing exclusively on the individual fields of enquiry which were to establish themselves as the core disciplines of modern science, this book is based on a broader understanding of science. On the one hand, it reminds the modern reader of the controversial aura of, for example, early studies in electricity, and on the other hand, offers a glimpse of the fluid boundaries between pioneering explorations of nervous diseases and esoteric speculations about the existence of analogical resemblances between mind and matter. The scientific advances of the Romantic period could not have been as farreaching and rapid without related efforts to disseminate the new knowledge amongst a wide spectrum of interested parties. Women and children, in particular, became a crucial target audience for the numerous publishers attempting to profit from the ever-rising interest in inventions and new insight into the secret workings of nature. Publications about the people, animals, plants and landscapes encountered by naval expeditions were a similarly popular topic of interest. Owing to William Godwin’s own involvement in the market of scientific popularisation, Mary Shelley learnt about her period’s technological advancements and scientific theories from her earliest years. Much of the knowledge she acquired as an avid young reader with an early penchant for writing was filtered through to her via scientific popularisations and textual hybrids between fact and fiction. Patricia Fara opens this collection of essays with an overview of scientific publications written for a lay audience and available during Mary Shelley’s formative childhood years. Considering that early nineteenth-century women could still only really enter the history of science as readers, illustrators and translators, Ludvig Holberg’s novel about Niels Klim’s journey through a subterranean world (1742) encouraged its female readers to feel at home in the spaces between fact and fiction. Holberg’s novel, along with Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1725), which demonstrated a similar preoccupation with contemporary science, is a revealing early fantasy about the imaginary exploration of alien spaces, mingled with an analysis of double standards and the social objectives behind scientific ventures. Eighteenth-century novels about scientific innovation are, therefore, shown to provide an important foil for Mary Shelley’s imaginative portrayal of a scientific hypothesis. The next chapter, written by Judith Barbour, offers detailed insight into the precise nature of the knowledge disseminated hrough the Juvenile Library? a serialised encyclopaedia published by William Godwin after 1807. Not surprisingly, the household of a writer, publisher and bookseller teemed with intellectual debates about the rationale and implications of new systems of scientific categorisation. Such discussions enthusiastically explored the Linnean order of plants al ong with other attempts to revise the long-established ‘great chain of being’, a rigid hierarchy that assigned a place to all living beings and embraced beings as diverse as mites and slugs, on the one hand, and God and his angelic 0 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall vassals, on the other. 23 Attracting young men with radical sentiments or otherwise unconventional attitudes, Godwin’s home was also a hub for discussions about the social changes made possible by the secular perspective of contemporary science, disencumbered by the crippling notions of mainstream morality. Controversies about mankind’s purpose were considered in light of, for instance, Georges Buffon’s (1707–88) accounts of the resemblances between the human physical frame and that of apes and other primates. The young Mary was, therefore, immersed into a heady intellectual climate that encouraged her to speculate about the reforming potentials of contemporary science. Percy Bysshe Shelley, an influential figure in her father’s circle of friends, was intrigued by the roaming imagination of the young Mary – so much so that the couple decided to elope in 1814. The early dialogues between the precocious child and the already established writer were to grow ever more intensive and, as Barbour argues, inspired the dramatic momentum required for transforming Mary’s fantasy about an artificially created being into a speculative drama about the consequences of contemporary science. In the late eighteenth century, the understanding and experience of space began to change in response to the accumulation of a vast bulk of new information about the geography of far-flung places. In parallel with this development, unprecedented efforts to grasp the secrets of the human mind, psyche and soul probed into the inner spaces of human existence. It goes without saying that the attempt to map and chart the phenomena of the mind could not follow equally objective principles. As Christa Knellwolf’s chapter explains, the inability to draw an objective map made it difficult to proceed. However, it also provided scope for imagining a vastness of imaginary space that reflects the minute infinities revealed by contemporary microscopes. At issue, however, are not the microscopic dimensions that will be the concern of twentieth-century microbiology, but the limitless nature of consciousness and imagination. The parallels between inner and outer space bears special salience for the setting of Frankenstein: The immense distances traversed, particularly in its narrative frame, position the novel’s eponymous hero in both an emotional and a geographic desert. The impossible spaces of the narrative and physical setting of the story, then, raise questions about whether the uncompromising realisation of ideals and absolutes is achievable for an ordinary human being. Contemporary debates on the sanctity of human life are a key concern of Frankenstein. Anita Guerrini’s chapter argues that early nineteenth-century debates about vivisection were motivated not only by the nascent sensitivity towards the sufferings of animals, but also responded to long-standing, religiously motivated attempts to ban experiments that pried into the mysteries of life – human and animal. The discovery and description of the nervous system, however, critically depended on the possibility of observing the physical locations of pain. Like Frankenstein himself, prominent scientists in the field found it difficult to cope with the gruesome aspects of vivisection and were unsure about whether they had a right to proceed with their research. Audiences were still eager to attend public Introduction 11 performances in anatomy but antivivisection debates shed important light on the contested public perception of anatomical-medical experimenters. Francois Magendie (1783–1855) – a French anatomist who regularly performed public dissections in order to demonstrate the body’s sensory functions – as a case in point, who illustrates a growing discomfort with the scientists’ wish to spy ever more deeply into the borderlines between life and death. So a further parallel between the real and fictional scientist emerges as an urgent concern of the novel, consisting of the fact that neither the real nor fictional scientist were horrified by the gruesome environment of the charnel house or suffici ently awed by the idea that a dead human body was the receptacle of a recently departed soul. Frankenstein’s creature is frequently referred to as a monster. While this trite stereotype fails to grasp the problems implicit in contemporary fantasies about the perfectibility of the human body and mind, it also ignores the fact that the monster posed enormous problems for the taxonomies of comparative anatomy, which is why teratology – the scientific explanation of the existence of monsters – emerged as an influential branch of contemporary science. Diverging significantly from the characteristics identified by received definitions of a particular species, Melinda Cooper argues that the nature and purpose of these alternative life-forms posed endless problems and questions. Were they simple variants of the normal representatives of a species, were they a sign that the health of a species had been undermined, or were they indications of special transformations waiting to manifest themselves in the imminent future? Such questions need to be raised in regard to Frankenstein’s so-called monstrous creation. Their relevance is further documented by the fact that debates about the problematic role of the monster must have occurred between the Shelleys and their friend William Lawrence (1783–1867), a leading figure in the controversy over whether the origin of life was the consequence of materialist or vitalist principles. As regards the philosophical conception of Frankenstein’s creature, the context of teratological controversies opens up a new understanding of the novel’s analysis of the origin and meaning of different forms of life. Allan K. Hunter’s focus on an evolutionary perspective leads to a very different interpretative approach, exploring the social and political implications of the creature’s life course. The evolutionary theories at issue here are those of Erasmus Darwin, whose untempered admiration for the revolutionary energies surfacing in America and France fed into his hypothetical modelling of the future state of life forms. Hunter’s essay examines the claim that Enlightenment science enabled new view of the human condition that comes into existence between a distant past and a distant future, and whose endless transformations generate cultural anxieties about the approach of a new evolutionary phase. Seen through the lens of Darwin’s revolutionary optimism and Godwin’s doctrine of perfectability, the creature is endowed with preternatural learning abilities, extreme powers of endurance and a body size that makes him dominant in any physical contest. Yet he is a lso transformable into a force of chaos and a generator of cyclic violence. His creation as a manufacturing process is thus a provocative reflection on the culture of 12 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall manufacturing innovation in England at the time. These tensions and provocations are revealed in the novel’s controversial reception, which also illustrates a growing anxiety in England about the nebulous and excessive tendencies of French thought, compared to English pragmatism. With our taken-for-granted attitude towards electricity, it is a challenge for twenty-first-century readers of Frankenstein to appreciate the imaginative potency of electrical researches in the Enlightenment period. Mary Shelley’s novel capitalizes on the dramatic cultural and psychological impact of electrical discovery as well as its immediately spectacular manifestations. Amongst her contemporaries, electricity was regarded as a life science or, more than that, as the science of life itself. Ian Jackson emphasizes that the most popular and spectacular forms of electrical experiment involved human and animal bodies. Such experiments promised to unlock forces of unlimited potential that might change the destiny of the species, effecting a transformation of human being in metaphysical as well as material terms. When unseen electrical forces were made to cause visible objects and bodies to move, or emit sparks, or to attract other objects towards them, this created a meeting point between the perceptual frameworks of science and animism. Through Galvanic experiments in which the corpses of recent gallows victims were made to dance, these forces are specifically linked with the fantasy of reanimation. The agonies of conscience experienced by Victor Frankenstein also reflect the intensity of debates surrounding researches into electricity which, from an orthodox religious point of view, were dangerously impious, because to reveal those things in creation that were hidden from the human senses was to transgress divine intention. If the Creator had wanted them to be known, He would have made them evident in the first place. Against this view, there was the Newtonian defence that the study of nature, with the purpose of revealing the workings of God to man, is essentially pious because it enables fuller human admiration of divine perfection. The unashamed atheism of the Shelley circle, and their embrace of Prometheus as the greatest of mythical heroes, prompted a move away from defensiveness to the lyrical celebration of bold discovery. However, Jackson suggests that in Frankenstein, Mary Shelley is offering a more troubled view of scientific aspiration. Joan Kirkby’s analysis of the spiritualist ideas underpinning the story of Victor Frankenstein brings up the question of what was regarded as a ‘science’ in the early nineteenth century. Mesmerism combined elements from the knowledge domains of astronomy, electricity and magnetism, with interpretative frameworks belonging to the practices of clairvoyance and spiritualism. Major philosophical thinkers such as Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788– 1860) interested themselves in the presence of spirits, and many of the works of eighteenth-century scientific writers include serious commentary on the permeability of the boundary between life and death. Leading spiritualists of this time, as Kirkby points out, were also leading scientists. Emanuel Swedenborg Introduction 13 (1688–1772) was led by his sophisticated interests in anatomy and the composition of matter to enquire into the specific location of the connecting point between body and soul. In this light, the anatomical work of Frankenstein, driven by an impassioned commitment to dismantling the boundary between life and death, takes on heightened implications. The themes of the novel can also be seen as closely linked with those of Percy Shelley’s major poems, in which a view of matter itself as spirit is xpounded with powerful conviction. The culture of collecting was one of the most significant forms of public engagement with the natural sciences in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. As Christine Cheater observes, some of the tensions played out in the novel are reflections of larger cultural tensions exemplified in the design and management of collections. Victor Frankenstein’s adventures take him from the extremes of conf inement, working day and night in his domestic laboratory, to some of the wildest and most remote landscapes of the world. Similarly, the quest for scientific trophies could lead to travels around the globe but also to the experience of confinement amongst the obsessive and personalised clutter of the cabinet of curiosities. There were tensions, too, between the curiosity driven projects of the private collectors or virtuosi and the growing commitment to expertise and professional specialization, with its attendant demands for greater exclusivity in the management and accessibility of collections. Cheater compares the careers of Ashton Lever (1729–88) and John Gould (1804–81) as exemplars of this transition and the tragic personal costs it sometimes entailed, suggesting that the disastrous conclusion of Victor Frankenstein’s enterprise shares some symptomatic elements. Scientific fictions about the existence of different forms of life did not begin with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Stories embraced in long-standing speculations about whether there are other worlds and, if so, what their inhabitants might look like, date back at least to Bernard le Bovier de Fontelle’s (1657–1757) scientific popularisation of Cartesianism. While early fantasies about the appearance of beings living outside or beneath the surface of the earth demonstrate little fear about the implications for their own world, Mary Shelley’s novel adds a decisively worrying twist to the theme. Sharing the planet with another species that is their own equivalent (or even superior) may be a prospect for which human nature is not ready, though in her later novel The Last Man, Shelley envisaged a world evacuated of the human species as a place of profound metaphysical emptiness. This work points towards a tradition of bleaker fictional renditions of the future. By the end of the nineteenth century, apocalyptic fantasies dominated the imagination of writers, such as H. G. Wells, disillusioned about the promises of science and their period’s irresponsible treatment of natural resources. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a work that stands at the beginning of such dark visions about the barbarities resulting from a science that is used in the service of megalomaniacs wishing to control the world rather than as a tool for the spread of Enlightenment ideas and values. It is time to reengage with the novel as a work 14 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall that is filled with the energies of scientific aspiration, as well as misgivings about human failure to realise it. Notes 1 Evelyn Fox Keller, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender and Science (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 49. Anne K. Mellor probably offers the most fully developed of such readings in Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (London: Routledge, 1988). See Isaac Asimov, ‘Robots, computers and fear’, Introduction to Machines That Think (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 1; Bernard E. Rollin, ed. The Frankenstein Syndrome: Ethical and Social Issues in the Genetic Engineering of Animals (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995). Patricia Fara, An Entertainment for Angels (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2002), p. 22. Desmond King-Hele, Doctor of Revolution: The Life and Genius of Erasmus Darwin (London: Faber & Faber, 1977). Jenny Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future, 1730–1810 (London: Faber & Faber, 2002). Erasmus Darwin, letter to Benjamin Franklin, 29 May 1787 in American Philosophical Society collection of Franklin Papers XXXV, 70; quoted in King-Hele (London: Faber & Faber, 1977), p. 79. Mary Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, in Mary Wollstonecraft, Political Writings, ed. Janet Todd (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 292. Ian Hunter, Rival Enlightenments: Civil and Metaphysical Philosophy in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001). For a historical background of eighteenth-century freemasonry, see Margaret Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991). For a etailed historical analysis of Illuminism, see Richard van Dulmen, Der Geheimbund der Illuminaten: Darstellung, Analyse, Dokumentation, trans. Christa Knellwolf (Stuttgart: F. Frommann, 1975), p. 159. Denis Diderot and Jean Dâ₠¬â„¢Alembert Le Rond, eds, L’Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des art et des sciences (Paris: Le Breton, 1751–72). For a discussion of the cultural context and objectives of the philosophes, see David Garrioch, ‘The party of the Philosophes’, in The Enlightenment World, eds Martin Fitzpartick, Peter Jones, Christa Knellwolf and Iain McCalman (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 26–41. Compare the entry for ‘Illuminati’ in the Catholic Encyclopaedia online: [accessed 10 October 2007]. Antoine Lavoisier, Traite elementaire de chimie, presente dans un ordre nouveau et d'apres les decouvertes modernes, 2 vols (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; repr. Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965). Mary Shelley, Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), p. 30. All further references are from this text and are cited parenthetically. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introduction 15 5 Johann Weyer, De praestigii s daemonum, trans. John Shea, in Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance (Binghamton, NY: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991 [1583]). 16 For the details of Godwin’s study, see Lives of the Necromancers: or, An Account of the Most Eminent Persons in Successive Ages, Who Have Claimed for Themselves, or to Whom Has Been Imputed by Others, the Exercise of Magical Power (London: Frederick J. Mason, 1834). 17 Also compare Robert Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1968); and Auguste Viatte, Les sources occultes du romanticism, illuminism, theosophie, 1770–1820 (Paris: Champion, 1965). 18 John [Giovanni] Aldini, ‘An account of the late improvements in galvanism, with a series of curious and interesting experiments performed before the commissioners of the French National Institute, and repeated lately in the anatomical theaters of London’ (London: 1803). Extracts from this document available online at [accessed 10 October 2007]. 19 Erasmus Darwin, The Temple of Nature (London: J. Johnson, 1803), Canto II, iv, lines 246–51. 20 Peter Haining, The Man Who Was Frankenstein (London: Frederick Muller, 1979), pp. 56–63. 21 William Blake, Jerusalem; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 22 William Wordsworth, The Excursion, Book 8, pp. 243 and 244; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 23 For a historical overview of the concept, see A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1948).